第1章

IntroductoryTheinstitutionofaleisureclassisfoundinitsbestdevelopmentatthehigherstagesofthebarbarianculture；as，forinstance，infeudalEuropeorfeudalJapan。Insuchcommunitiesthedistinctionbetweenclassesisveryrigorouslyobserved；andthefeatureofmoststrikingeconomicsignificanceintheseclassdifferencesisthedistinctionmaintainedbetweentheemploymentspropertotheseveralclasses。Theupperclassesarebycustomexemptorexcludedfromindustrialoccupations，andarereservedforcertainemploymentstowhichadegreeofhonourattaches。Chiefamongthehonourableemploymentsinanyfeudalcommunityiswarfare；andpriestlyserviceiscommonlysecondtowarfare。Ifthebarbariancommunityisnotnotablywarlike，thepriestlyofficemaytaketheprecedence，withthatofthewarriorsecond。Buttheruleholdswithbutslightexceptionsthat，whetherwarriorsorpriests，theupperclassesareexemptfromindustrialemployments，andthisexemptionistheeconomicexpressionoftheirsuperiorrank。BrahminIndiaaffordsafairillustrationoftheindustrialexemptionofboththeseclasses。

Inthecommunitiesbelongingtothehigherbarbarianculturethereisaconsiderabledifferentiationofsub-classeswithinwhatmaybecomprehensivelycalledtheleisureclass；andthereisacorrespondingdifferentiationofemploymentsbetweenthesesub-classes。Theleisureclassasawholecomprisesthenobleandthepriestlyclasses，togetherwithmuchoftheirretinue。Theoccupationsoftheclassarecorrespondinglydiversified；buttheyhavethecommoneconomiccharacteristicofbeingnonndustrial。Thesenon-industrialupper-classoccupationsmayberoughlycomprisedundergovernment，warfare，religiousobservances，andsports。

Atanearlier，butnottheearliest，stageofbarbarism，theleisureclassisfoundinalessdifferentiatedform。Neithertheclassdistinctionsnorthedistinctionsbetweenleisure-classoccupationsaresominuteandintricate。ThePolynesianislandersgenerallyshowthisstageofthedevelopmentingoodform，withtheexceptionthat，owingtotheabsenceoflargegame，huntingdoesnotholdtheusualplaceofhonourintheirschemeoflife。

TheIcelandiccommunityinthetimeoftheSagasalsoaffordsafairinstance。Insuchacommunitythereisarigorousdistinctionbetweenclassesandbetweentheoccupationspeculiartoeachclass。Manuallabour，industry，whateverhastododirectlywiththeeverydayworkofgettingalivelihood，istheexclusiveoccupationoftheinferiorclass。Thisinferiorclassincludesslavesandotherdependents，andordinarilyalsoallthewomen。Ifthereareseveralgradesofaristocracy，thewomenofhighrankarecommonlyexemptfromindustrialemployment，oratleastfromthemorevulgarkindsofmanuallabour。Themenoftheupperclassesarenotonlyexempt，butbyprescriptivecustomtheyaredebarred，fromallindustrialoccupations。Therangeofemploymentsopentothemisrigidlydefined。Asonthehigherplanealreadyspokenof，theseemploymentsaregovernment，warfare，religiousobservances，andsports。Thesefourlinesofactivitygoverntheschemeoflifeoftheupperclasses，andforthehighestrank——thekingsorchieftainsthesearetheonlykindsofactivitythatcustomorthecommonsenseofthecommunitywillallow。Indeed，wheretheschemeiswelldevelopedevensportsareaccounteddoubtfullylegitimateforthemembersofthehighestrank。Tothelowergradesoftheleisureclasscertainotheremploymentsareopen，buttheyareemploymentsthataresubsidiarytooneoranotherofthesetypicalleisure-classoccupations。Suchare，forinstance，themanufactureandcareofarmsandaccoutrementsandofwarcanoes，thedressingandhandlingofhorses，dogs，andhawks，thepreparationofsacredapparatus，etc。Thelowerclassesareexcludedfromthesesecondaryhonourableemployments，exceptfromsuchasareplainlyofanindustrialcharacterandareonlyremotelyrelatedtothetypicalleisure-classoccupations。

Ifwegoastepbackofthisexemplarybarbarianculture，intothelowerstagesofbarbarism，wenolongerfindtheleisureclassinfullydevelopedform。Butthislowerbarbarismshowstheusages，motives，andcircumstancesoutofwhichtheinstitutionofaleisureclasshasarisen，andindicatesthestepsofitsearlygrowth。Nomadichuntingtribesinvariouspartsoftheworldillustratethesemoreprimitivephasesofthedifferentiation。AnyoneoftheNorthAmericanhuntingtribesmaybetakenasaconvenientillustration。Thesetribescanscarcelybesaidtohaveadefinedleisureclass。Thereisadifferentiationoffunction，andthereisadistinctionbetweenclassesonthebasisofthisdifferenceoffunction，buttheexemptionofthesuperiorclassfromworkhasnotgonefarenoughtomakethedesignation“leisureclass“altogetherapplicable。

Thetribesbelongingonthiseconomiclevelhavecarriedtheeconomicdifferentiationtothepointatwhichamarkeddistinctionismadebetweentheoccupationsofmenandwomen，andthisdistinctionisofaninvidiouscharacter。Innearlyallthesetribesthewomenare，byprescriptivecustom，heldtothoseemploymentsoutofwhichtheindustrialoccupationsproperdevelopatthenextadvance。Themenareexemptfromthesevulgaremploymentsandarereservedforwar，hunting，sports，anddevoutobservances。Averynicediscriminationisordinarilyshowninthismatter。

Thisdivisionoflabourcoincideswiththedistinctionbetweentheworkingandtheleisureclassasitappearsinthehigherbarbarianculture。Asthediversificationandspecialisationofemploymentsproceed，thelineofdemarcationsodrawncomestodividetheindustrialfromthenon-industrialemployments。Theman’soccupationasitstandsattheearlierbarbarianstageisnottheoriginaloutofwhichanyappreciableportionoflaterindustryhasdeveloped。Inthelaterdevelopmentitsurvivesonlyinemploymentsthatarenotclassedasindustrial，——war，politics，sports，learning，andthepriestlyoffice。Theonlynotableexceptionsareaportionofthefisheryindustryandcertainslightemploymentsthataredoubtfullytobeclassedasindustry；suchasthemanufactureofarms，toys，andsportinggoods。Virtuallythewholerangeofindustrialemploymentsisanoutgrowthofwhatisclassedaswoman’sworkintheprimitivebarbariancommunity。

Theworkofthemeninthelowerbarbariancultureisnolessindispensabletothelifeofthegroupthantheworkdonebythewomen。Itmayevenbethatthemen’sworkcontributesasmuchtothefoodsupplyandtheothernecessaryconsumptionofthegroup。Indeed，soobviousisthis“productive“characterofthemen’sworkthatintheconventionaleconomicwritingsthehunter’sworkistakenasthetypeofprimitiveindustry。Butsuchisnotthebarbarian’ssenseofthematter。Inhisowneyesheisnotalabourer，andheisnottobeclassedwiththewomeninthisrespect；norishisefforttobeclassedwiththewomen’sdrudgery，aslabourorindustry，insuchasenseastoadmitofitsbeingconfoundedwiththelatter。Thereisinallbarbariancommunitiesaprofoundsenseofthedisparitybetweenman’sandwoman’swork。Hisworkmayconducetothemaintenanceofthegroup，butitisfeltthatitdoessothroughanexcellenceandanefficacyofakindthatcannotwithoutderogationbecomparedwiththeuneventfuldiligenceofthewomen。

Atafartherstepbackwardintheculturalscale——amongsavagegroups——thedifferentiationofemploymentsisstilllesselaborateandtheinvidiousdistinctionbetweenclassesandemploymentsislessconsistentandlessrigorous。Unequivocalinstancesofaprimitivesavageculturearehardtofind。Fewofthesegroupsorcommunitiesthatareclassedas“savage“shownotracesofregressionfromamoreadvancedculturalstage。Buttherearegroups——someofthemapparentlynottheresultofretrogression——whichshowthetraitsofprimitivesavagerywithsomefidelity。Theirculturediffersfromthatofthebarbariancommunitiesintheabsenceofaleisureclassandtheabsence，ingreatmeasure，oftheanimusorspiritualattitudeonwhichtheinstitutionofaleisureclassrests。Thesecommunitiesofprimitivesavagesinwhichthereisnohierarchyofeconomicclassesmakeupbutasmallandinconspicuousfractionofthehumanrace。AsgoodaninstanceofthisphaseofcultureasmaybehadisaffordedbythetribesoftheAndamans，orbytheTodasoftheNilgiriHills。TheschemeoflifeofthesegroupsatthetimeoftheirearliestcontactwithEuropeansseemstohavebeennearlytypical，sofarasregardstheabsenceofaleisureclass。

AsafurtherinstancemightbecitedtheAinuofYezo，and，moredoubtfully，alsosomeBushmanandEskimogroups。SomePueblocommunitiesarelessconfidentlytobeincludedinthesameclass。Most，ifnotall，ofthecommunitiesherecitedmaywellbecasesofdegenerationfromahigherbarbarism，ratherthanbearersofaculturethathasneverrisenaboveitspresentlevel。Ifso，theyareforthepresentpurposetobetakenwiththeallowance，buttheymayservenonethelessasevidencetothesameeffectasiftheywerereally“primitive“populations。

Thesecommunitiesthatarewithoutadefinedleisureclassresembleoneanotheralsoincertainotherfeaturesoftheirsocialstructureandmanneroflife。Theyaresmallgroupsandofasimple(archaic)structure；theyarecommonlypeaceableandsedentary；theyarepoor；andindividualownershipisnotadominantfeatureoftheireconomicsystem。Atthesametimeitdoesnotfollowthatthesearethesmallestofexistingcommunities，orthattheirsocialstructureisinallrespectstheleastdifferentiated；nordoestheclassnecessarilyincludeallprimitivecommunitieswhichhavenodefinedsystemofindividualownership。Butitistobenotedthattheclassseemstoincludethemostpeaceable——perhapsallthecharacteristicallypeaceable——primitivegroupsofmen。Indeed，themostnotabletraitcommontomembersofsuchcommunitiesisacertainamiableinefficiencywhenconfrontedwithforceorfraud。

Theevidenceaffordedbytheusagesandculturaltraitsofcommunitiesatalowstageofdevelopmentindicatesthattheinstitutionofaleisureclasshasemergedgraduallyduringthetransitionfromprimitivesavagerytobarbarism；ormoreprecisely，duringthetransitionfromapeaceabletoaconsistentlywarlikehabitoflife。Theconditionsapparentlynecessarytoitsemergenceinaconsistentformare:(1)thecommunitymustbeofapredatoryhabitoflife(warorthehuntingoflargegameorboth)；thatistosay，themen，whoconstitutetheinchoateleisureclassinthesecases，mustbehabituatedtotheinflictionofinjurybyforceandstratagem；

(2)subsistencemustbeobtainableonsufficientlyeasytermstoadmitoftheexemptionofaconsiderableportionofthecommunityfromsteadyapplicationtoaroutineoflabour。Theinstitutionofleisureclassistheoutgrowthofanearlydiscriminationbetweenemployments，accordingtowhichsomeemploymentsareworthyandothersunworthy。Underthisancientdistinctiontheworthyemploymentsarethosewhichmaybeclassedasexploit；

unworthyarethosenecessaryeverydayemploymentsintowhichnoappreciableelementofexploitenters。

Thisdistinctionhasbutlittleobvioussignificanceinamodernindustrialcommunity，andithas，therefore，receivedbutslightattentionatthehandsofeconomicwriters。Whenviewedinthelightofthatmoderncommonsensewhichhasguidedeconomicdiscussion，itseemsformalandinsubstantial。Butitpersistswithgreattenacityasacommonplacepreconceptioneveninmodernlife，asisshown，forinstance，byourhabitualaversiontomenialemployments。Itisadistinctionofapersonalkind——ofsuperiorityandinferiority。Intheearlierstagesofculture，whenthepersonalforceoftheindividualcountedmoreimmediatelyandobviouslyinshapingthecourseofevents，theelementofexploitcountedformoreintheeverydayschemeoflife。Interestcentredaboutthisfacttoagreaterdegree。

Consequentlyadistinctionproceedingonthisgroundseemedmoreimperativeandmoredefinitivethenthanisthecaseto-day。Asafactinthesequenceofdevelopment，therefore，thedistinctionisasubstantialoneandrestsonsufficientlyvalidandcogentgrounds。

Thegroundonwhichadiscriminationbetweenfactsishabituallymadechangesastheinterestfromwhichthefactsarehabituallyviewedchanges。Thosefeaturesofthefactsathandaresalientandsubstantialuponwhichthedominantinterestofthetimethrowsitslight。Anygivengroundofdistinctionwillseeminsubstantialtoanyonewhohabituallyapprehendsthefactsinquestionfromadifferentpointofviewandvaluesthemforadifferentpurpose。Thehabitofdistinguishingandclassifyingthevariouspurposesanddirectionsofactivityprevailsofnecessityalwaysandeverywhere；foritisindispensableinreachingaworkingtheoryorschemeoflife。Theparticularpointofview，ortheparticularcharacteristicthatispitcheduponasdefinitiveintheclassificationofthefactsoflifedependsupontheinterestfromwhichadiscriminationofthefactsissought。Thegroundsofdiscrimination，andthenormofprocedureinclassifyingthefacts，therefore，progressivelychangeasthegrowthofcultureproceeds；fortheendforwhichthefactsoflifeareapprehendedchanges，andthepointofviewconsequentlychangesalso。Sothatwhatarerecognisedasthesalientanddecisivefeaturesofaclassofactivitiesorofasocialclassatonestageofculturewillnotretainthesamerelativeimportanceforthepurposesofclassificationatanysubsequentstage。

Butthechangeofstandardsandpointsofviewisgradualonly，anditseldomresultsinthesubversionofentiresuppressionofastandpointonceaccepted。Adistinctionisstillhabituallymadebetweenindustrialandnon-industrialoccupations；andthismoderndistinctionisatransmutedformofthebarbariandistinctionbetweenexploitanddrudgery。Suchemploymentsaswarfare，politics，publicworship，andpublicmerrymaking，arefelt，inthepopularapprehension，todifferintrinsicallyfromthelabourthathastodowithelaboratingthematerialmeansoflife。Thepreciselineofdemarcationisnotthesameasitwasintheearlybarbarianscheme，butthebroaddistinctionhasnotfallenintodisuse。

Thetacit，common-sensedistinctionto-dayis，ineffect，thatanyeffortistobeaccountedindustrialonlysofarasitsultimatepurposeistheutilisationofnon-humanthings。Thecoerciveutilisationofmanbymanisnotfelttobeanindustrialfunction；butalleffortdirectedtoenhancehumanlifebytakingadvantageofthenon-humanenvironmentisclassedtogetherasindustrialactivity。Bytheeconomistswhohavebestretainedandadaptedtheclassicaltradition，man’s“powerovernature“iscurrentlypostulatedasthecharacteristicfactofindustrialproductivity。Thisindustrialpowerovernatureistakentoincludeman’spoweroverthelifeofthebeastsandoveralltheelementalforces。Alineisinthiswaydrawnbetweenmankindandbrutecreation。