第1章

INTRODUCTIONBYTHEEDITOR.TheauthorofthisvolumewasconsideredoneoftheablestlegalmindsintheUnitedStates.HestudiedlawunderWilliamWirt,theeminentauthoroftheLifeofPatrickHenry,andhispracticedprofessionwithgreatsuccessfrom1810to1824.Afteranintervalofretirement,heheldahighjudicialpositionasJudgeoftheGeneralCourtofVirginia,from1826to1841;

atwhichtimeheenteredMr.Tyler\'sCabinetasSecretaryoftheNavy.

OnMr.Webster\'sretirement,inthespringof1843,JudgeUpshursucceededhimasSecretaryofState.Onthe28thofFebruary1844,theexplosionofthegreatgun(\"Peacemaker\")onboardthesteamerPrincetonkilledthiseminentjuristandstatesman.Hisreputationinprivatelifewasasspotlessashispublicfamewasexaltedandunrivaled.

ThisreviewofJudgeStory\'sCommentariesontheConstitutionoftheUnitedStatesisperhapstheablestanalysisofthenatureandcharacteroftheFederalGovernmentthathaseverbeenpublished.Ithasremainedunanswered.Indeed,wearenotawarethatanyattempthasbeenmadetoinvalidatethesoundnessofitsreasoning.Asalawwriter,JudgeStoryhasbeenregardedasoneoftheablestofhisschool,whichwasthatofthestraightesttypeof\"Federalists\"oftheelderAdams\'sparty.Hiscommentariesareagooddealmarredwiththepeculiarpartisandoctrinesofthatschoolofpoliticians;indeed,theymaybelookeduponasapleafortheseverepoliticalprincipleswhichruledtheadministrationofPresidentJohnAdams.TheAlienandSeditionLaws,whichhavelongsincepassedintoaby-wordofreproach,willstillfindabundantsupportinJudgeStory\'sCommentaries.HeperpetuallyinsistedonconstruingtheConstitutionfromthestandpointofthatsmallanddefeatedpartyintheFederalConventionwhichwantedtoformagovernmentonthemodeloftheEnglishmonarchyineverythingbutthename.Thispartywaspowerfulinrespectabilityandtalents,butweakorfewinnumbers?andafteritwassosignallydefeatedintheConstitutionalConvention,itstillheldontoitsmonarchicalprinciples,andsoughttoinvestthenewgovernmentwithkinglypowers,notwithstandingtheConstitutionhadbeenconstructeduponprinciplesentirelyoppositetoitsdoctrine.InaletterofU.S.SenatorJohnLangdon,ofNewHampshiretoSamuelRinggold,ofthedateofOctober10th,1800,hesays:

\"Mr.Adamscertainlyexpressedhimselfthathehoped,orexpectedtoseethedaywhenMr.Taylor,andhisfriend,Mr.Giles,wouldbeconvincedthatthepeopleofAmericawouldneverbehappywithoutahereditaryChiefMagistrateandSenateoratleastforlife.\"Mr.Rose,aSenatorfromPennsylvania,andafriendoftheAdamsparty,leftthetableofMr.Hollines,ofPhiladelphia,when\"theConstitutionoftheUnitedStates\"wasgivenasatoast.JohnWood,thehistorianofthetime,speakingoftheprinciplesoftheFederalists,says:\"TheybestowedunboundedpanegyricsuponAlexanderHamilton,becausethisgentlemanactedthepartofPrimeMinistertothePresident.Theythoughttheadministrationandthegovernmentoughttobeconfoundedandidentified;thattheadministrationwasthegovernment,andthegovernmenttheadministration;andthatthepeopleoughttobowintamesubmissiontoitswhimandcaprice.\"WritingofMr.Adams,Jeffersonsays:\"Mr.AdamshadoriginallybeenaRepublican.Theglareofroyaltyandnobility,duringhismissioninEngland,hadmadehimbelievetheirfascinationtobeanecessaryingredientingovernment.HisbookontheAmericanConstitutionhadmadeknownhispoliticalbias.HewastakenupbythemonarchicalFederalistsinhisabsence,andwasbythem,madetobelievethatthegeneraldispositionofourcitizenswasfavorabletomonarchy.\"

AtadinnergivenbyMr.Jefferson,whenhewasamemberofWashington\'sCabinet,hedeclaresthat,\"afterdinner,Mr.Adamssaid:\'PurgetheBritishConstitutionofitscorruption,andgivetoitspopularbranchequalityofrepresentation,anditwouldbethemostperfectConstitutioneverdevisedbythewitofman.\'Hamiltonreplied:\'Purgeitofitscorruption,andgivetoitspopularbranchequalityofrepresentation,anditwouldbecomethenanimpracticablegovernment.Asitstandsatpresent,withallitssupposeddefects,itisthemostperfectgovernmentthateverexisted.\'\"

Mr.Jeffersonadds:\"Hamiltonwasnotonlyamonarchist,butforamonarchybottomedoncorruption.\"TheFederalistshavingamajorityinCongress,passedanacttocontinueinforceduringtheadministrationofMr.Adams,declaringthat\"ifanypersonshouldwriteorpublish,orcausetobepublished,anylibelagainsttheGovernmentoftheUnitedStates,oreitherHouseofCongress,oragainstthePresident,heshallbepunishedbyafinenotexceedingtwothousanddollars,andbyimprisonmentnotexceedingtwoyears.\"

Agreatmanyeditors,andothergentlemen,wereimprisonedunderthisact.

EventoridiculethePresidentwaspronouncedbythecorruptpartisanjudgesaviolationofthelaw.MenwerebeatenalmosttodeathforneglectingtopullofftheirhatswhenthePresidentwaspassing,andeverymanwhodidnotinstantlyprostratehimselfbeforetheensignsofFederalroyalty,wasdenouncedastheenemyofhiscountry.Thefollowingletter,addressedtoPresidentJohnAdamsbythemerchantsofBoston,showstowhatlengthsthatpartyhaddraggedthepublicmindinthedirectionofmonarchy:\"We,thesubscribers,inhabitantsandcitizensofBoston,intheStateofMassachusetts,deeplyimpressedwiththealarmingsituationofourcountry,andconvincedofthenecessityofunitingwithfirmnessatthisinterestingcrisis,begleavetoexpresstoyou,theChiefMagistrateandsupremerulerovertheUnitedStates,ourfullestapprobationofallthemeasures,externalandinternal,youhavepleasedtoadopt,underdirectionofdivineauthority.Webegleavealsotoexpressthehighandelevatedopinionweentertainofyourtalents,yourvirtue,yourwisdomandyourprudence;andourfixedresolutiontosupport,attheriskofourlivesandfortunes,suchmeasuresasyoumaydetermineupontobenecessaryforpromotingandsecuringthehonorandhappinessofAmerica.\"AnyonecanseethatmenwhocouldaddressthePresidentafterthisfashion,hadagreatdeallessrespectfortherestraintsandlimitationsofawrittenConstitution,thanforthewillandforceofindividualpower.ThatwasthedriftofacertainportionofpublicopinioninAmericaatthattime.

Butthetyrannicalexcessesofthatpartysoonbroughtitintosuchodium,thatitwasdrivenfrompowerbytheelectionofMr.JeffersontothePresidency.

Thoughdefeated,itspartisansneverceasedtolabortodragtheConstitutionawayfromitsDemocraticfoundations,bygivingtheConstitutionaconstructionutterlyantagonistictotheintentionsoftheConventionwhichframedandoftheStateswhichadoptedit.ThegreatviceoftheFederalistsconsistedindesiringtoclothetheFederalGovernmentwithalmostmonarchicalpowers;

whereastheStateshadcarefullyandresolutelyreservedthegreatmassofpoliticalpowertothemselves.ThepowerswhichtheydelegatedtotheFederalGovernmentwerefew,andweregeneralintheircharacter.Thosewhichtheyreservedembracedtheiroriginalandinalienablesovereignty,whichnoStateimagineditwassurrenderingwhenit,adoptedtheConstitution.

Mr.Madisondweltwithgreatforceuponthefactthat\"adelegatedisnotasurrenderedpower.\"TheStatessurrenderednopowerstotheFederalGovernment.

Theyonlydelegatedthem.ThepowersoftheStatesareoriginal.ThoseoftheFederalGovernmentareonlyderivedandsecondary;andtheyweredelegated,notforthepurposeofaggrandizingtheFederalGovernment,butforthesolepurposeofprotectingtherightsandsovereigntyof\"theseveralStates.\"TheFederalGovernmentwasformedbytheStatesfortheirownbenefit.TheFederalGovernmentissimplyanagency,commissionedbythe\"severalStates\"fortheirownconvenienceandsafety.IntheConventionofVirginia,PatrickHenrysaid:\"Liberty,sir,istheprimaryobject.

Liberty,thegreatestofallearthlyblessings?giveusthatpreciousjewel,andyoumaytakeawayeverythingelse.\"And,withaneloquencemorepowerfulthanthatwhichshookthethroneofMacedon,hedemonstratedthatthebattlesoftheRevolutionwerefought,nottomake\"agreatandmightyempire,\"but\"forliberty.\"Itwasforliberty?forthelibertyofthepeopleofthe\"severalStates\"thattheFederalGovernmentwasestablished.

Notforthekinglygrandeurandpowerofgovernment,butforthehappiness,safetyandlibertyof\"thepeopleoftheseveralStates.\"NothingcouldpossiblybestrongerthanthedeterminationpervadingthemindoftheFederalConventiontosacrificenoiotaoftheessentialsovereigntyoftheStatesintheformationofthegeneralUnion.ThisfeelingwasmosthappilyexpressedbyChiefJusticeEllsworth,ofConnecticut,in,theConventionthatframedourConstitution,inthefollowingwords:\"Iwantdomestichappinessaswellasgeneralsecurity.AGeneralGovernmentwillnevergrantmethis,asitcannotknowmywants,norrelievemydistress.MyStateisonlyasoneoutofthirteen.Canthey,theGeneralGovernment,gratifymywishes?MyhappinessdependsasmuchontheexistenceofmyStateGovernmentasanew-borninfantdependsuponitsmotherfornourishment.\"IntheConventionofMassachusetts,FisherAmessaid:\"AconsolidationoftheStateswouldsubvertthenewConstitution,andagainstwhichthisarticleisourbestsecurity.Toomuchprovisioncannotbemadeagainstconsolidation.TheStateGovernmentsrepresentthewishesandfeelings,andlocalinterestsofthepeople.TheyarethesafeguardandornamentoftheConstitution;theywillprotracttheperiodofourliberties;theywillaffordashelteragainsttheabuseofpower,andwillbethenaturalavengersofourviolatedrights.\"SuchweretheviewsandsentimentsofthemenwhoframedandwhoadoptedtheFederalConstitution.ButJudgeStorybelongedtoanotherschoolofpoliticians,andhisCommentariesupontheConstitutionwerewrittenintheinterestsoftheConsolidationists,whohaveeverinsistedongivingthatinstrumentaninterpretationinharmonywiththeirwishesandideas.

ThisreviewofJudgeUpshur,however,doesnotleaveasinglepointoftheFederalisticheresyunanswered.Itwilleverstandasatext-bookofthetruetheoryofourgovernment.Weareconfidentthatnobookhaseverappearedinthiscountrywhichsothoroughlymeetsthedemandsofthepresenthour.Withthisbookinhishand,theDemocraticstatesmanororatorisarmedateverypointagainstthesophistriesofthefoesofStatesovereigntyandself-government.Thereisnovitalpointwhichitdoesnotdiscussandsettleuponthebasisofinvulnerabletruth.

TheNoteswhichwehaveadded,wehope,willbefoundusefultotheunprofessionalreader.TheywillshowthattheauthorsreasoningisconfirmedbyourConstitutionalhistoryandbytheearlydecisionsoftheSupremeCourt.

Ineveryinstance,ourownNotesaredistinguishedfromthoseoftheauthorbyourinitials?

\"C.C.B.\"PREFACEBYTHEAUTHOR.Thebooktowhichthefollowingpagesrelatehasbeenforseveralyearsbeforethepublic.Ithasbeenreviewedbysomeoftheprincipalperiodicalsofthecountry,andrecommendedinthestrongesttermstopublicfavor.

Ihavenodispositiontodetractfromitsmeritsasavaluablecompendiumofhistoricalfacts,oraspresentingjustviewsoftheConstitutioninmanyrespects.Myattentionhasbeendirectedtoitspoliticalprinciplesalone,andmysolepurposehasbeentoinquireintothecorrectnessofthoseprinciples,sofarastheyrelatetothetruenatureandcharacterofourFederalGovernment,Itmaywellexcitesurprise,thatsoelaborateaworkasthisofJudgeStory,andonesowellcalculatedtoinfluencepublicopinion,shouldhaveremainedsolongunnoticedbythosewhodonotconcurintheauthor\'sviews.

Noonecanregretthiscircumstance,morethanIdo;forIwouldwillinglyhavedevolveduponablerhandsthetaskwhichInowhaveundertaken.I

offernoapologyforthemannerinwhichthattaskhasbeenperformed.

Itisenoughformetosay,thatthereader,howsoeverfavorablehisopinionofthisessaymaybewillnotbemoresensibleofitsimperfectionsthanIam.IknowthattheactualpracticeoftheFederalGovernmentformanyyearspast,andthestrongtendenciesofpublicopinioninfavoroffederalpower,forbidmetohopeforafavorablereception,exceptfromtheveryfewwhostillcherishtheprincipleswhichIhaveendeavoredtoreestablish.

Thefollowingessaywaspreparedaboutthreeyearsago,withaviewtoitspublicationinoneofourperiodicalreviews.Circumstances,whichitisunnecessarytomention,preventedthisfrombeingdone,andtheworkwaslaidasideandforgotten.Myattentionhasbeenagaincalledtoitwithinafewweekspast,andIamnowinducedtogiveittothepublic,underthehopethatitmaynotbewithoutitsinfluenceindirectingtheattentionofthose,whohavenotyetlostallinterestinthesubject,tothetrueprinciplesofourconstitutionofgovernment.

Idonotclaimthemeritoforiginality.Myconclusionsaredrawnfromtheauthenticinformationofhistory,andfromatrainofreasoning,whichwilloccurtoeverymind,onthefactswhichhistorydiscloses.Myobjectwillbeanswered,ifeventhefewbywhomthesepageswillprobablybereadshallbeinducedtore-examine,withasinceredesireaftertruth,thegreatprinciplesuponwhichpoliticalpartiesinourcountrywereoncedivided,butwhichthereismuchreasontofeararenolongerrespected,eveniftheybenotwhollyforgotten.

IdonotofferthisessayasacommentaryontheFederalConstitution.

Havingproposedtomyselfbutasingleobject,Ihaveendeavoredtocompressmymatterwithinassmallacompassaspossible,consistentwithadueregardtoclearness,andaproperreferencetoauthorities,whereauthoritiesarereliedon.THETRUENATUREANDCHARACTER

OFOUR

FEDERALGOVERNMENT.CHAPTERI.THECHARACTEROFJUDGESTORY\'SCOMMENTARIESONTHECONSTITUTION.ItcamewithintherangeofJudgeStory\'sduties,asDaneProfessorofLawinHarvardUniversity,toexpoundandillustratetheConstitutionoftheUnitedStates.Hislecturesuponthatsubjecthavebeenabridgedbyhimself,andpublishedinaseparatevolume.Althoughtheworkisgiventothepublicasanabridgment,itisnevertheless,asitprofessestobe,\"afullanalysisandexpositionoftheconstitutionofgovernmentoftheUnitedStatesandpresents,intheopinionoftheauthorhimself,the\"leadingdoctrines\"oftheoriginal,\"sofarastheyarenecessarytoajustunderstandingoftheactualprovisionsoftheConstitution.\"Theauthorprofessestohavecompiledit\"fortheuseofcollegesandhighschools,\"

butasitcontainsalltheimportanthistoricalfacts,andalltheleadingreasonsuponwhichhisownopinionshavebeenbased,andasithasbeenpreparedwithelaboratecareinotherrespects,wemayreasonablysuppose,withoutimpeachinghismodesty,thatheexpectedittobereceivedasacompletework.Itis,indeed,quiteasfullasanysuchworkneedstobe,foranypurpose,except,perhaps,theveryfirstlessonstothestudentofconstitutionallaw.Thepoliticianandthejuristmayconsultit,withacertaintyoffindingalltheprominenttopicsofthesubjectfullydiscussed.

AworkpresentingaproperanalysisandcorrectviewsoftheConstitutionoftheUnitedStateshaslongbeenadesideratumwiththepublic.Itistruethatthelastfifteenyearshavenotbeenunfruitfulincommentariesuponthatinstrument;suchcommentaries,however,ashave,forthemostpartmetadeservedfate,inimmediateandtotaloblivion.Mostofthemhaveservedonlytothrowridiculeuponthesubjectwhichtheyprofessedtoillustrate.Afewhaveappeared,however,ofamuchhigherorder,andbearingthestampoftalent,learning,andresearch.Amongthese,theworkbeforeus,andtheCommentariesofChiefJusticeKent,holdthefirstrank.

Bothoftheseworksare,asitisnaturaltheyshouldbe,stronglytincturedwiththepoliticalopinionsoftheirrespectiveauthors;andasthereisaperfectconcurrencebetweentheminthisrespect,theirjointauthoritycanscarcelyfailtoexertastronginfluenceuponpublicopinion.Itismuchtoberegrettedthatsomeone,amongthemanywhodifferfromthemintheirviewsoftheConstitution,andwhopossessalltherequisitequalificationsforthetask,shouldnothavethoughtitnecessarytovindicatehisownpeculiartenets,inaworkequallyelaborate,andpresentingjustclaimstopublicattention.Theauthorityofgreatnamesisofsuchimposingweight,thatmerereasonandargumentcanrarelycounterpoiseitinthepublicmind;anditspreponderanceisnoteasilyovercome,exceptbyaddinglikeauthoritytotheweightofreasonandargument,intheopposingscale.

Ihopeitisnotyettoolateforthissuggestiontohaveitseffectuponthosetowhomitisaddressed.

ThefirstcommentaryupontheConstitution,theFederalist,isdecidedlythebest,whichhasyetappeared.Thewritersofthatbookwereactorsinalltheinterestingscenesoftheperiod,andtwoofthemweremembersoftheconventionwhichformedtheConstitution.Addedtothis,theirextensiveinformation,theircommandingtalents,andtheirexperienceingreatpublicaffairs,qualifiedthem,inapeculiardegree,forthetaskwhichtheyundertook.Nevertheless,theirgreatobjectwastorecommendtheConstitutiontothepeople,atatimewhenitwasveryuncertainwhethertheywouldadoptitornot;andhencetheirwork,althoughitcontainsaveryfullandphilosophicalanalysisofthesubject,comestousasamereargumentinsupportofafavoritemeasure,and,forthatreason,doesnotalwayscommandourentireconfidence.Besides,theConstitutionwasanditstruecharacter,whichistobelearnedonlyfromitspracticaloperation,couldonlybeconjectured.Muchhasbeendeveloped,intheactualpracticeofthegovernment,whichnopoliticianofthatdaycouldeitherhaveforeseenorimagined.Newquestionshavearisen,notthenanticipated,anddifficultiesandembarrassments,whollyunforeseen,havesprungfromneweventsintherelationoftheStatestooneanother,andtothegeneralgovernment.HencetheFederalistcannotbereliedon,asfullandsafeauthorityinallcases.

Itis,indeed,matterofjustsurprise,andaffordingthestrongestproofoftheprofoundwisdomandfar-seeingsagacityoftheauthorsofthatwork,thattheirviewsoftheConstitutionhavebeensooftenjustifiedinthecourseofitspracticaloperation.Still,however,itmustbeadmittedthattheFederalistisdefectiveinsomeimportantparticulars,anddeficientinmanymore.TheConstitutionismuchbetterunderstoodatthisdaythanatthetimeofitsadoption.Thisisnottrueofthegreatprinciplesofcivilandpoliticalliberty,whichlie,atthefoundationofthatinstrument;

butitisemphaticallytrueofsomeofitsprovisions,whichwereconsideredatthetimeascomparativelyunimportant,orsoplainasnottobemisunderstood,butwhichhavebeenshown,bysubsequentevents,tobepregnantwiththegreatestdifficulties,andtoexertthemostimportantinfluenceuponthewholecharacterofthegovernment.ContemporaryexpositionsoftheConstitution,therefore,althoughtheyshouldbereceivedasauthorityinsomecases,andmayenlightenourjudgmentsinmostothers,cannotberegardedassafeguides,bytheexpounderofthatinstrumentatthisday.ThesubjectdemandsourattentionnowasstronglyasitdidbeforetheFederalistwaswritten.1

Itisnotsurprising,therefore,thattheworknowunderconsiderationshouldhavebeenhailedwithpleasureandreceivedwitheveryfavorabledisposition.JudgeStoryfillsahighstationinthejudiciaryoftheUnitedStates,andhasacquiredacharacter,fortalentsandlearning,whichensuresrespecttowhateverhemaypublishunderhisownname.Hisduty,asaJudgeoftheSupremeCourt,hasdemandedofhimfrequentinvestigationsofthenicestquestionsofconstitutionallaw;andhislongserviceinthatcapacityhasprobablybroughtunderhisrevieweveryprovisionofthatinstrumentinregardtowhichanydifferenceofopinionhasprevailed.Assistedashehasbeenbytheargumentsoftheablestcounsel,andbythejointdeliberationsoftheotherjudgesofthecourt,itwouldbeindeedwonderful,ifheshouldhazardhiswell-earnedreputationasajurist,uponanyhastyorunweighedopinion,uponsubjectssograveandimportant.Hehasalsobeenanattentiveobserverofpoliticalevents,andalthoughbynomeansobtrusiveinpolitics,hasyetapoliticalcharacter,scarcelylessdistinguishedthanhischaracterasajurist.Toall,theseclaimstopublicattentionandrespect,maybeaddedareputationforlaboriousresearch,andforcalmandtemperatethinking.AworkontheConstitutionoftheUnitedStates,emanatingfromsuchasource,cannotfailtoexertastronginfluenceuponpublicopinion,anditis,therefore,peculiarlyimportantthatitsrealcharactershouldbeunderstood.Whatevermaybethecastofitspoliticalopinions,itcanscarcelyfailtocontainmanyvaluabletruths,andmuchinformationwhichwillbefoundusefultoallclassesofreaders.And,sofarasitspoliticalopinionsareconcerned,itisofthehighestimportancetoguardthepublicmindagainsttheinfluencewhichitserrors,iferrorstheybe,mayborrowfromthemereauthorityofthedistinguishednameunderwhichtheyareadvanced.

Theplanoftheworkbeforeusisveryjudicious.InordertoacorrectunderstandingoftheConstitution,itisabsolutelynecessarytounderstandthesituationoftheStatesbeforeitwasadopted.Theauthor,actinguponthisidea,distributeshisworkintothreegreatdivisions.\"Thefirstwillembraceasketchofthecharters,constitutionalhistory,andanterevolutionaryjurisprudenceoftheColonies.ThesecondwillembracetheconstitutionalhistoryoftheStates,duringtheRevolution,andtherise,progress,decline,andfalloftheConfederation.ThethirdwillembracethehistoryoftheriseandadoptionoftheConstitution,andafullexpositionofallitsprovisions,withthereasonsonwhichtheywererespectivelyfounded,theobjectionsbywhichtheywererespectivelyassailed,andsuchillustrationsdrawnfromcontemporaneousdocuments,andthesubsequentoperationsofthegovernment,asmaybestenablethereadertoestimateforhimself,thetruevalueofeach.\"Thisplanisatoncecomprehensiveandanalytical.

Itembraceseverytopicnecessarytoafullunderstandingofthesubject,while,atthesametime,itpresentstheminthenaturalorderofinvestigation.

Itdisplaysaperfectacquaintancewiththetruenatureofthesubject,andpromiseseveryresultwhichthereadercandesire.ThefirstpartrelatestoasubjectofthegreatestinteresttoeveryAmerican,andwellworthythestudyofphilosophicalenquirers,allovertheworld.Thereisnot,withinthewholerangeofhistory,aneventmoreimportant,withreferencetoitseffectsupontheworldatlarge,thanthesettlementoftheAmericanColonies.Itdidnotfallwithintheplanofourauthortoenquireveryextensively,orveryminutely,intothemerehistoryofeventswhichdistinguishedthatextraordinaryenterprise.Sofarasthefirstsettlersmayberegardedasactuatedbyavarice,byambition,orbyanyotheroftheusualmotivesoftheadventurer,theirdeedsbelongtotheprovinceofthehistorianalone.We,however,mustcontemplatetheminanotherandahighercharacter.

Adeepandsolemnfeelingofreligion,andanattachmentto,andanunderstandingof,theprinciplesofcivilliberty,farinadvanceoftheageinwhichtheylived,suggestedtomostofthemtheideaofseekinganewhomeandfoundingnewinstitutionsinthewesternworld.Tothisspiritweareindebtedforallthatisfreeandliberalinourpresentpoliticalsystems,itwouldbeaworkofverygreatinterest,andaltogetherworthyofthepoliticalhistorian,totracethegreatprinciplesofourinstitutionsbacktotheirsources.Theiroriginwouldprobablybediscoveredataperiodmuchmoreremotethanisgenerallysupposed.Weshouldderivefromsuchareviewmuchlightintheinterpretationofthosepartsofoursystemsastowhichwehavenopreciserulesinthelanguageofourconstitutionsofgovernment.

ItistoberegrettedthatJudgeStorydidnottakethisviewofthesubject.

Althoughnotstrictlyrequiredbytheplanofhiswork,itwas,nevertheless,altogetherconsistentwithit,andwouldhaveaddedmuchtoitsinterestwiththegeneralreader.Hissourcesofhistoricalinformationwereample,andhishabitsandthecharacterofhismindfittedhimwellforsuchaninvestigation,andforpresentingtheresultinananalyticalandphilosophicalform.Hehaschosen,however,toconfinehimselfwithinmuchnarrowerlimits.

Yet,evenwithinthoselimits,hehasbroughttogetheravarietyofhistoricalfactsofgreatinterest,andhaspresentedtheminacondensedform,wellcalculatedtomakealastingimpressiononthememory.Thebriefsketchwhichhehasgivenofthesettlementoftheseveralcolonies,andofthechartersfromwhichtheyderivedtheirrightsandpowersasseparategovernments,containsmuchtoenableustounderstandfullytherelationwhichtheyboretooneanotherandtothemothercountry.ThisisthetruestartingpointintheinvestigationofthosevexedquestionsofconstitutionallawwhichhavesolongdividedpoliticalpartiesintheUnitedStates.Itwouldseemalmostimpossiblethatanytwoopinionscouldexistuponthesubject;

andyetthehistoricalfacts,uponwhichaloneallpartiesmustrely,althoughwellauthenticatedandcomparativelyrecent,havenotbeenunderstoodbyallmenalike.Ourauthorwaswellawareoftheimportanceofsettlingthisquestionatthethresholdofhiswork.ManyofthepowerswhichhavebeenclaimedfortheFederalGovernment,bythepoliticalpartytowhichhebelongs,dependuponadenialofthatseparateexistence,andseparatesovereigntyandindependence,whichtheopposingpartyhasuniformlyclaimedfortheStates.Itis,therefore,highlyimportanttothecorrectsettlementofthiscontroversy,thatweshouldascertaintheprecisepoliticalconditionoftheseveralcoloniespriortotheRevolution.ThiswillenableustodeterminehowfarJudgeStoryhasdonejusticetohissubject,intheexecutionofthefirstpartofhisplan;andbytracingthecoloniesfromtheirfirstestablishmentassuch,throughthevariousstagesoftheirprogressuptotheadoptionoftheFederalConstitution,weshallbegreatlyaidedinformingacorrectopinionastothetruecharacterofthatinstrument.CHAPTERII.THENON-RELATIONOFTHECOLONIESTOEACHOTHER?nbsp;

THEYWERENOTONEPEOPLE.ItappearstobeafavoriteobjectofJudgeStorytoimpressuponthemindofthereader,attheverycommencementofhiswork,theideathatthepeopleoftheseveralcolonieswere,astosomeobjects,whichhehasnotexplained,andtosomeextentwhichhehasnotdefined,\"onepeople.\"Thisisnotonlyplainlyinferablefromthegeneralscopeofthebook,butisexpresslyassertedinthefollowingpassage\"Butalthoughthecolonieswereindependentofeachotherinrespecttotheirdomesticconcerns,theywerenotwhollyalientoeachother.Onthecontrary,theywerefellow-subjects,andformanypurposesonepeople.Everycolonisthadarighttoinhabit,ifhepleased,inanyothercolony,andasaBritishsubjecthewascapableofinheritinglandsbydescentineveryothercolony.Thecommercialintercourseofthecolonies,too,wasregulatedbythegenerallawsoftheBritishempire,andcouldnotberestrainedorobstructedbycoloniallegislation.

TheremarksofMr.ChiefJusticeJayareequallyjustandstriking:\"AllthepeopleofthiscountrywerethensubjectsoftheKingofGreatBritain,andowedallegiancetohim,andallthecivilauthoritythenexistingorexercisedhereflowedfromtheheadoftheBritishempire.Theywereinastrictsensefellow-subjectsandinavarietyofrespectsonepeople.

WhentheRevolutioncommenced,thepatriotsdidnotassertthatonlythesameaffinityandsocialconnectionsubsistedbetweenthepeopleofthecolonies,whichsubsistedbetweenthepeopleofGaul,Britain,andSpain,whileRomanprovinces,towit,onlythataffinityandsocialconnectionwhichresultsfromthemerecircumstanceofbeinggovernedbythesameprince.\'\"

Inthispassagetheauthortakeshisgrounddistinctlyandboldly.Thefirstideasuggestedbytheperusalofitis,thathediscernedveryclearlythenecessityofestablishinghisposition,butdidnotdiscernquitesoclearlybywhatprocessofreasoninghewastoaccomplishit.Ifthepassagestoodalone,itwouldbefairtosupposethathedidnotdesigntoextendtheideaofaunityamongthepeopleofthecoloniesbeyondtheseveralparticularswhichhehasenumerated.Justicetohimrequiresthatweshouldsupposethis;for,ifithadbeenotherwise,hewouldscarcelyhavefailedtosupporthisopinionbypointingoutsomeoneofthe\"manypurposes,\"

forwhichthecolonieswere,inhisviewofthem,\"onepeople.\"ThesamemaybesaidofMr.ChiefJusticeJay.Healsohasspecifiedseveralparticularsinwhichhesupposedthisunitytoexist,andarrivesattheconclusion,thatthepeopleoftheseveralcolonieswere,\"inavarietyofrespects,onepeople.\"Inwhatrespecttheywere\"one,\"exceptthosewhichhehasenumerated,hedoesnotsayandofcourseitisfairtopresumethathemeanttorestthejustnessofhisconclusionuponthemalone.Thehistoricalfactsstatedbybothofthesegentlemenaretrulystated;butitissurprisingthatitdidnotoccurtosuchcoolreasoners,thateveryoneofthemistheresultoftherelationbetweenthecoloniesandthemothercountry,andnottheresultoftherelationbetweenthecoloniesthemselves.EveryBritishsubject,whetherborninEnglandproperorinacolony,hasarighttoresideanywherewithintheBritishrealm;andthisbytheforceofBritishlaws.SuchistherightofeveryEnglishman,whereverhemaybefound.

Astotherightofthecolonisttoinheritlandsbydescentinanyothercolonythanhisown,JudgeStoryhimselfinformsusthatitbelongedtohim\"asaBritishsubject.\"Thatright,indeed,isinconsequenceofhisallegiance.BythepolicyoftheBritishconstitutionandlaws,itisnotpermittedthatthesoilofherterritoryshouldbelongtoanyfromwhomshecannotdemandallthedutiesofallegiance.ThisallegianceisthesameinallthecoloniesasitisinEnglandproperand,whereveritexists,thecorrespondentrighttoownandinheritthesoilattaches.Therighttoregulatecommercialintercourseamonghercoloniesbelongs,ofcourse,totheparentcountry,unlesssherelinquishesitbysomeactofherown;

andnosuchactisshowninthepresentcase.Onthecontrary,althoughthatrightwasresistedforatimebysomeoftheAmericancolonies,itwasfullyyielded,asourauthorhimselfinformsus,byallthoseofNewEngland,andIamnotinformedthatitwasdeniedbyanyother.Indeed,thesupremacyofParliament,inmostmattersoflegislationwhichconcernedthecolonies,wasgenerally?nay,universally?admitteduptotheveryeveoftheRevolution.Itistrue,therighttotaxthecolonieswasdenied,butthiswasuponawhollydifferentprinciple.ItwastherightofeveryBritishsubjecttobeexemptfromtaxation,exceptbyhisownconsent;

andasthecolonieswerenot,andfromtheirlocalsituationcouldnotbe,representedinParliament,therightofthatbodytotaxthemwasdenied,uponafundamentalprincipleofEnglishliberty.Buttherightofthemothercountrytoregulatecommerceamonghercoloniesisofadifferentcharacter,anditneverwasdeniedtoEnglandbyherAmericancolonies,solongasahopeofreconciliationremainedtothem.Inlikemanner,thefactsreliedonbyMr.Jay,that\"allpeopleofthiscountrywerethensubjectsoftheKingofGreatBritain,andowedallegiancetohim\"andthat\"allthecivilauthoritythenexistingorexercisedhereflowedfromtheheadoftheBritishempire,\"arebuttheusualincidentsofcolonialdependence,andarebynomeanspeculiartothecasehewasconsidering.Theydo,indeed,proveaunitybetweenallthecoloniesandthemothercountry,andshowthatthese,takenaltogether,areinthestrictestsenseoftheterms,\"onepeople\";butIamatalosstoperceivehowtheyprove,thattwoormorepartsorsubdivisionsofthesameempirenecessarilyconstitute\"onepeople.\"

Ifthisbetrueofthecolonies,itisequallytrueofanytwoormoregeographicalsectionsofEnglandproper;foreveryoneofthereasonsassignedappliesasstrictlytothiscaseastothatofthecolonies.Anytwocountriesmaybe\"onepeople,\"or\"anationdefacto,\"iftheycanbemadesobythefactsthattheirpeopleare\"subjectsoftheKingofGreatBritain,andoweallegiancetohim,\"andthat\"allthecivilauthorityexercisedthereinflowsfromtheheadoftheBritishempire.\"

Itistoberegrettedthattheauthorhasnotgivenushisownviewsofthesourcesfromwhichtheseseveralrightsandpowerswerederived.

Iftheyauthorizehisconclusion,thattherewasanysortofunityamongthepeopleoftheseveralcolonies,distinctfromtheircommonconnectionwiththemothercountry,aspartsofthesameempire,itmustbebecausetheyflowedfromsomethingintherelationbetwixtthecoloniesthemselves,andnotfromtheircommonrelationtotheparentcountry.Norisitenoughthattheserightsandpowersshould,inpointoffact,flowfromtherelationofthecoloniestooneanother;theymustbethenecessaryresultoftheirpoliticalcondition.Evenadmitting,then,thattheywould,underanystateofcircumstances,warranttheconclusionwhichtheauthorhasdrawnfromthem,itdoesnotfollowthattheconclusioniscorrectlydrawninthepresentinstance.Foraughtthathehassaidtothecontrary,therightofeverycolonisttoinhabitandinheritlandsineverycolony,whetherhisownornot,mayhavebeenderivedfrompositivecompactandagreementamongthecoloniesthemselves;andthispresupposesthattheyweredistinctandseparate,andnot\"onepeople.\"Andsofarastherightsofthemothercountryareconcerned,theyexistedinthesameform,andtothesameextent,overeveryothercolonyoftheempire.Didthismakethepeopleofallthecolonies\"onepeople?\"Ifso,thepeopleofJamaica,theBritishEastIndiapossessions,andtheCanadasare,fortheverysamereason,\"onepeople\"atthisday.Ifacommonallegiancetoacommonsovereign,andacommonsubordinationtohisjurisdiction,aresufficienttomakethepeopleofdifferentcountries\"onepeople,\"itisnotperceived(withalldeferencetoMr.ChiefJusticeJay)whythepeopleofGaul,Britain,andSpainmightnothavebeen\"onepeople,\"whileRomanprovinces,notwithstanding\"thepatriots\"didnotsayso.Thegeneralrelationbetweenthecoloniesandtheparentcountryisaswellsettledandunderstoodasanyother,anditispreciselythesameinallcases,exceptwherespecialconsentandagreementmayvaryit.Whoever,therefore,wouldprovethatanypeculiarunityexistedbetweentheAmericancolonies,isboundtoshowsomethingintheircharters,orsomepeculiarityintheircondition,toexemptthemfromthegeneralrule.JudgeStorywastoowellacquaintedwiththestateofthefactstomakeanysuchattemptinthepresentcase.TheCongressoftheninecolonies,whichassembledatNewYork,inOctober,1765,declarethatthecolonists\"owethesameallegiancetotheCrownofGreatBritain,thatisowingfromhissubjectsbornwithintherealm,andallduesubordinationtothataugustbody,theParliamentofGreatBritain.\"\"Thatthecolonistsareentitledtoalltheinherentrightsandlibertiesofhis[theKing\'s]

naturalbornsubjectswithintheKingdomofGreatBritain,\"Wehavehereanall-sufficientfoundationoftherightoftheCrowntoregulatecommerceamongthecolonies,andoftherightofthecoloniststoinhabitandtoinheritlandineachandallthecolonies.TheywerenothingmorethantheordinaryrightsandliabilitiesofeveryBritishsubject;and,indeed,themostthatthecoloniesevercontendedforwasanequality,intheserespects,withthesubjectsborninEngland.Thefacts,therefore,uponwhichJudgeStory\'sreasoningisfounded,springfromadifferentsourcefromthatfromwhichheiscompelledtoderivethem,inordertosupporthisconclusion.