第1章

Thereisnosubjectmoreinterestingtoeverymanthanthesubjectofgovernment。Hissecurity，beherichorpoor，andinagreatmeasurehisprosperity，areconnectedtherewith；itisthereforehisinterestaswellashisdutytomakehimselfacquaintedwithitsprinciples，andwhatthepractiseoughttobe。

Everyartandscience，howeverimperfectlyknownatfirst，hasbeenstudied，improvedandbroughttowhatwecallperfectionbytheprogressivelaborsofsucceedinggenerations；butthescienceofgovernmenthasstoodstill。NoimprovementhasbeenmadeintheprincipleandscarcelyanyinthepractisetilltheAmericanRevolutionbegan。InallthecountriesofEurope（exceptinFrance）thesameformsandsystemsthatwereerectedintheremoteagesofignorancestillcontinue，andtheirantiquityisputintheplaceofprinciple；itisforbiddentoinvestigatetheirorgin，orbywhatrighttheyexist。Ifitbeaskedhowhasthishappened，theansweriseasy:theyareestablishedonaprinciplethatisfalse，andtheyemploytheirpowertopreventdetection。

Notwithstandingthemysterywithwhichthescienceofgovernmenthasbeenenveloped，forthepurposeofenslaving，plunderingandimposinguponmankind，itisofallthingstheleastmysteriousandthemosteasytobeunderstood。Themeanestcapacitycannotbeataloss，ifitbeginsitsinquiriesattherightpoint。Everyartandsciencehassomepoint，oralphabet，atwhichthestudyofthatartorsciencebegins，andbytheassistanceofwhichtheprogressisfacilitated。Thesamemethodoughttobeobservedwithrespecttothescienceofgovernment。

Insteadthenofembarrassingthesubjectintheoutsetwiththenumeroussubdivisionsunderwhichdifferentformsofgovernmenthavebeenclassed，suchasaristocracy，democracy，oligarchy，monarchy，etc。，thebettermethodwillbetobeginwithwhatmaybecalledprimarydivisions，orthoseunderwhichalltheseveralsubdivisionswillbecomprehended。

Theprimarydivisionsarebuttwo:

First，governmentbyelectionandrepresentation。

Secondly，governmentbyhereditarysuccession。

Alltheseveralformsandsystemsofgovernment，howevernumerousordiversified，classthemselvesunderoneorotherofthoseprimarydivisions；

foreithertheyareonthesystemofrepresentation，oronthatofhereditarysuccession。Astothatequivocalthingcalledmixedgovernment，suchasthelateGovernmentofHolland，andthepresentGovernmentofEngland，itdoesnotmakeanexceptiontothegeneralrule，becausethepartsseparatelyconsideredareeitherrepresentativeorhereditary。

Beginningthenourinquiriesatthispoint，wehavefirsttoexamineintothenatureofthosetwoprimarydivisions。Iftheyareequallyrightinprinciple，itismerematterofopinionwhichweprefer。Iftheonebedemonstrativelybetterthantheotherthatdifferencedirectsourchoice；

butifoneofthemshouldbesoabsolutelyfalseasnottohavearightofexistencethemattersettlesitselfatonce；becauseanegativeprovedononething，wheretwoonlyareoffered，andonemustbeaccepted，amountstoanaffirmativeontheother。

Therevolutionsthatarenowspreadingthemselvesintheworldhavetheirorigininthisstateofthecase，andthepresentwarisaconflictbetweentherepresentativesystemfoundedontherightsofthepeople，andthehereditarysystemfoundedinusurpation。Astowhatarecalledmonarchy，royaltyandaristocracy，theydonot，eitherasthingsorasterms，sufficientlydescribethehereditarysystem；theyarebutsecondarythingsorsignsofthehereditarysystem，andwhichfallofthemselvesifthatsystemhasnotarighttoexist。

Weretherenosuchtermsasmonarchy，royaltyandaristocracy，orwereotherstermssubstitutedintheirplace，thehereditarysystem，ifitcontinued，wouldnotbealteredthereby。Itwouldbethesamesystemunderanyothertitularynameasitisnow。

Thecharacterthereforeoftherevolutionsofthepresentdaydistinguishesitselfmostdefinitivelybygroundingitselfonthesystemofrepresentativegovernment，inoppositiontothehereditary。Nootherdistinctionreachesthewholeoftheprinciple。

Havingthusopenedthecasegenerally，Iproceed，inthefirstplace，toexaminethehereditarysystembecauseithasthepriorityinpointoftime。Therepresentativesystemistheinventionofthemodernworld；and，thatnodoubtmayariseastomyownopinion，Ideclareitbeforehand，whichis，thatthereisnotaprobleminEuclidmoremathematicallytruethanthathereditarygovernmenthasnotarighttoexist。Whenthereforewetakefromanymantheexerciseofhereditarypowerwetakeawaythatwhichheneverhadtherighttopossess，andwhichnolaworcustomcould，orevercan，givehimatitleto。

Theargumentsthathavehithertobeenemployedagainstthehereditarysystemhavebeenchieflyfoundedupontheabsurdityofit，anditsincompetencytothepurposeofgoodgovernment。Nothingcanpresenttoourjudgment，ortoourimagination，afigureofgreaterabsurdity，thanthatofseeingthegovernmentofanationfall，asitfrequentlydoes，intothehandsofaladnecessarilydestituteofexperience，andoftenlittlebetterthanafool。Itisaninsulttoeverymanofyears，ofcharacter，andoftalents，inacountry。

Themomentwebegintoreasonuponthehereditarysystem，itfallsintoderision；letbutasingleideabeginandathousandwillsoonfollow。

Insignificance，imbecility，childhood，dotage，wantofmoralcharacter；

infine，everydefect，seriousorlaughable，unitetoholdupthehereditarysystemasafigureofridicule。Leaving，however，theridiculousnessofthethingtothereflectionsofthereader，Iproceedtothemoreimportantpartofthequestion，namely，whethersuchasystemhasarighttoexist。

Tobesatisfiedoftherightofathingtoexist，wemustbesatisfiedthatithadarighttobegin。Ifithadnotarighttobegin，ithasnottherighttocontinue。Bywhatrightthendidthehereditarysystembegin？

Letamanbutaskhimselfthisquestion，andhewillfindthathecannotsatisfyhimselfwithananswer。

Therightwhichanymanoranyfamilyhadtosetitselfupatfirsttogovernanation，andtoestablishitselfhereditarily，wasnootherthantherightwhichRobespierrehadtodothesamethinginFrance。Ifhehadnone，theyhadnone。Iftheyhadany，hehasasmuch；foritisimpossibletodiscoversuperiorityofrightinanyfamily，byvirtueofwhichhereditarygovernmentcouldbegin。TheCapets，theGuelphs，theRobespierres，theMarats，areallonthesamestandingastothequestionofright。Itbelongsexclusivelytonone。

Itisonesteptowardlibertytoperceivethathereditarygovernmentcouldnotbeginasanexclusiverightinanyfamily。Thenextpointwillbewhether，havingoncebegun，itcouldgrowintoarightbytheinfluenceoftime。

Thiswouldbesupposinganabsurdity；foreitheritisputtingtimeintheplaceofprinciple，ormakingitsuperiortoprinciple；whereastimehasnomoreconnectionwith，orinfluenceuponprinciple，thanprinciplehasupontime。Thewrongwhichbeganathousandyearsagoisasmuchawrongasifitbeganto-day；andtherightwhichoriginatesto-dayisasmucharightasifithadthesanctionofathousandyears。

TimewithrespecttoprinciplesisaneternalNOW:ithasnooperationuponthem:itchangesnothingoftheirnatureandqualities。Butwhathavewetodowithathousandyears？Ourlifetimeisbutashortportionofthatperiod，andifwefindthewronginexistenceassoonaswebegintolive，thatisthepointoftimeatwhichitbeginstous；andourrighttoresistitisthesameasifitneverexistedbefore。